Explaining different terms of learning including the compounding of schedules

Acceptance: The third and last step of observational learning; the observer uses acquired modelling cues as a guide for his or her own behaviour, which is either imitative or counter imitative.

Acquisition: The learning of a response. Also, as the second step of observational learning, it is the observer’s ability to recall or reproduce the modelled behaviours to which he has been exposed.

Avoidance learning: Learning to avoid unwanted results by producing certain responses before the noxious event occurs.

Base line: A measure of the frequency of behaviour to be modified taken before any treatment begins.

Classical conditioning: Learning the association between two stimuli in the environment so that a response initially elicited by one can become elicited by the other as well.

Compound schedules: The use of a combination of schedules of partial reinforcement so that a complex sequence of responses may be required in order to obtain rewards.

Conditioned response (CR): In classical conditioning an acquired response to environmental cues (such as salivating at the sight of food); in instrumental conditioning the response that has been shaped by means of reinforcement.

Conditioned stimulus (CS): A stimulus that produces a response because of learning or conditioning.

Cumulative record: A graph illustrating performance during a schedule of reward; the number of responses are plotted along the vertical axis and time along the horizontal axis.

Direct counterhnitation: Avoiding a specific modelled behaviour. Direct imitation: Copying a model exactly.

Discrimination: Controlling conditioning so that only a specific stimulus and not those that resemble it will produce the desired response.

Discriminative stimulus: A stimulus indicating that there is a potential change in the relationship between responses and consequences. (A red traffic light will indicate to the automobile driver that he can no longer continue driving with impunity he risks either apprehension by a law-enforcement officer or a collision with another car.)

Disinhibition: A situation in which a person generalizes positively from specific modelled behaviours to a whole class of behaviours.

Exposure: The first step of observational learning that occurs when an observer encounters modelling cues.

Extinction: The gradual weakening and disappearance of the acquired response due to the continued non-presentation of an unconditioned stimulus or reinforcer.

Fixed interval: A reinforcement schedule in which a reward is given according to the time that has elapsed; the first response that occurs after a redesignated time interval is rewarded.

Fixed ratio: A reinforcement schedule in which a reward is given after a fixed number of responses have been made.

Generalization: The tendency for stimuli that physically resemble but are not identical with those used in conditioning to produce the conditioned response but to a lesser degree.

Generalization gradient: The strength of a CR as a function of the degree of similarity between a test stimulus and the CS; the greater the similarity between the two, the more the similar stimulus will be able to elicit the conditioned response.

Inhibition: A situation in which a person generalizes from specific modelled actions to avoiding a whole class of behaviours.

Instrumental learning (or operant conditioning): Learning that takes place because of the relationship between behaviour and its consequences.

Law of effect: E. L. Thorndike’s principle that successful behaviours will tend be repeated while unsuccessful ones will tend to fall into disuse.

Learning: Any relatively permanent change in behaviour produced by experience.
Live modelling: The example provided by persons to whom we are directly exposed.

Modelling: The behaviour of one person the model that is observed by another.

Modelling cues: The specific behaviours displayed by a model, either live or symbolic.

Observational learning: The process by which the behaviour of one person the observer changes simply because of exposure to the behaviour of another the model.

Partial reinforcement extinction effect: The finding that a response that has been acquired under conditions of partial reinforcement extinguishes more slowly than one acquired with continuous reinforcement.

Performance: An animal or person’s overt and observable behaviour, which is assessed by the experimenter to determine whether learning has taken place.

Reinforcement: A positive outcome or reward given for the performance of a certain act; reinforcement usually increases the likelihood that the behaviour will be repeated. 5D (“ess dee”): A discriminative stimulus indicating that a particular behaviour will produce a reward.

S’ (“ess delta”): A discriminative stimulus indicating that a particular behaviour will not produce a reward.

Scalloping: A common cumulative record pattern for the fixed- interval schedule; after each reward there is a pause and then an increase in the rate of responding toward the end of the interval.

Secondary reinforcers: Stimuli that are initially neutral but then acquire reinforcing properties because of their association with primary or basic rewards.

Shaping: Rewarding an animal or person’s behaviours as they move in the direction desired by the experimenter so that eventually the desired behaviour is achieved.

Spontaneous recovery: A response to a conditioned stimulus occurring after extinction had apparently been achieved.

Stimulus control: The production of operant behaviour only in the presence (or absence) of certain discriminative stimuli.

Successive approximations: The gradual changes that take place in an animal or person’s in the direction desired by the experimenter; these changes are brought about by shaping.

Symbolic modelling: The example provided by persons to whom we are indirectly exposed through the media or second-hand description.

Unconditioned response (UR): An innate, reflex response (such as salivating when eating food).

Unconditioned stimulus (US): Something which typically produces a reflex response (food typically causes salivation to occur).

Variable interval (VI): A reinforcement schedule in which a variable amount of time must elapse before a reward will be given.

Variable ratio (VR): A reinforcement schedule in which a variable number of responses must be completed before a reward will be given.

Absolute threshold: The smallest amount of physical stimulus energy that is required to produce a sensation.

Ampulla: The enlarged area at the base of each semicircular canal that contains the receptors for the perception of body rotation.

Aqueous humour: The liquid that fills the space in the eye between the cornea and the lens.

Auditory canal: The passage that leads from the pinna to the eardrum.

Basilar membrane: The structure in the cochlea that moves when fluid is displaced in the cochlea and contains the receptors for sound waves.

Basket-shaped nerve endings: The receptors for pressure sensations that are located around the base of the hair cells.

Binocular depth cue: Information about depth that requires the use of both eyes (for example, retinal disparity).

Binocular (retinal) disparity: A binocular depth cue that is produced by the disparity between the images reaching each eye.

Blind spot: The area where the optic nerve leaves the eye; it contains no visual receptors.

Clairvoyance: The ability to perceive objects or events that cannot be perceived by the conventional senses.

Cochlea: The coiled, bony structure in the inner ear that contains the primary receptors for hearing.

Cone: One type of visual receptor that is located primarily in the central retina and is most important for colour vision and the perception of fine detail.

Cornea: The clear, tough outer covering of the eye. Dark adaptation: The process by which the eye becomes much more sensitive to light with increasing time under conditions of dim illumination.

Difference threshold (just noticeable difference): The smallest difference in physical energy between two stimuli that will enable someone to judge them as different.

Distal stimulus: A stimulus that actually occurs in the environment. Extrasensory perception: The field beyond usual sensory awareness that includes telepathy, clairvoyance, precognition, and psychokinesis.

Free nerve endings: The structures found in the skin that may be important in producing sensations of pain.

Fovea: The area in the central retina, containing many cones, where vision is most acute.

Illusion: A disparity between perception and physical reality.
Interposition: A monocular depth cue; when one object obscures part of another, it is judged to be nearer than the second object.

Iris: The coloured band of muscle tissue that surrounds the eye’s pupil. Kinesthesis: The sense of body movement that is provided by feedback from receptors located in the muscles, tendons, and joints.

Lens: The transparent, flexible eye tissue that focuses light on the retina.
Linear perspective: A monocular depth cue; parallel lines converge in the distance producing a perception of depth.

Meissner corpuscles: The receptors that are believed to produce pressure sensations in hairless area of the body.

Method of limits: The technique used in psychophysics to determine the absolute threshold.

Monocular depth cue: Information about depth that requires the use of only one eye (for example, interposition, shadows, texture gradient, and liner perspective).

Muller-Lyer illusion: The view that, of two lines of equal length, the one bounded by closed arrowheads is shorter than the one bounded by open arrowheads.

Olfactory cleft: The structure in the uppermost nasal cavity where the olfactory receptors are located.

Olfactory receptors: The structures in the nasal passages that are sensitive to smell.

Opponent-process theory: The theory proposed by Hearing that colour vision is produced by three different mechanisms that are sensitive to red-green, yellow-blue, and black-white, respectively.

Organ of Corti: The structure on the basilar membrane containing hair cells that are stimulated by the movement of the basilar membrane.

Ossicles: Three small bones that magnify the movements of the eardrum and direct them to the oval window.

Oval window: An opening in the cochlea.

Papillae: Raised areas on the tongue that contain groups of taste buds.

Perceptual constancies: Our perception of various objects as unchanging in spite of the fact that our sensory awareness of them does change.

Photon: A particle of matter that makes up light. Physical primaries: The colours red, blue, and green which, when

Fixed as lights, can produce any colour in the visible spectrum. Pinna: The external part of the ear. Precognition: The ability to forecast the future. Proximal stimulus: The pattern of energy (or information) that actually reaches a sensory receptor.

Psychokinesis: The ability to influence the physical world by means of thoughts or wishes.

Psychological primaries: The colours red, green, blue, and yellow, which subjects feel (by introspection) cannot be analysed into other colours.

Psychophysics: Study of the relationship between the physical characteristics of a stimulus and the psychological sensations it produces.

Pupil: The dark center of the eye through which light enters. Resonance (or place) theory: The theory that sensations of pitch are

Due to the responsiveness of different areas of the basilar membrane to sounds of different frequency.

Retina: The area at the back of the eye containing the structures that are sensitive to light—the rods and cones.

Rod: One type of visual receptor that is located primarily in the peripheral retina and that is important for seeing in dim light.

Saccule: One of the two parts of the vestibule in the inner ear. Semicircular canals: Three structures in the inner ear that is sensitive to the rotation of the body.

Sensation: A subarea within the field of perception that focuses mostly on the detection of energy and the working of the sense organs.

Signal detection theory: The view that any judgment in a psychophysical study is due to the actual sensitivity of the observer and the psychological factors that affect decision-making.

Size constancy: The judgment of the size of a given object as constant even though the size of the image it produces on the retina can change dramatically at different distances.

Shape constancy: Our perception of the shape of an object as constant even though the shape of the image it produces on the retina can change markedly.

Taste buds: The organs that are sensitive to taste; they are located on  the top surface and sides of the tongue.

Telepathy: The ability to read another person’s mind. Telephone (or frequency) theory: The theory that differences in sensations of pitch are due to the firing of more hair cells to sounds of greater frequency.

Texture gradient: A monocular depth cue; the elements on a textured surface appear to come closer together as depth increases.

Tympanic membrane (eardrum): A thin tissue at the end of the auditory canal that vibrates in response to sound waves.

Unconscious inference theory: The view that size constancy is due to internal computation the observer makes, according to which he adjusts his retinal image size depending upon the perceived distance of the object.

Utricle: One of the two parts of the vestibule in the inner ear.

Vestibule: A structure of the inner ear that provides information about body tilt and acceleration.

Visible spectrum: The range of light wavelengths the eye is sensitive to, varying from violet (400 millimicrons) to red (700 millimicrons).

Volley principle: The view that, above a frequency of 1000 cycles per second, the hair cells of the basilar membrane do not fire to all sound waves reaching the ear but only to some of them.
Wavelength: The distance between successive wave peaks. Weber fraction: The unvarying ratio between the magnitude of a given stimulus and the magnitude of a second one that can be perceived as discriminably different from it.

Young-Helmholtz theory: The theory that colour vision is due to the action of three receptors that are sensitive to red, green, and blue stimuli, respectively.

Behaviorism: The school of psychology, founded by John Watson, which asserts that the relationship between observable stimuli and responses is the only appropriate subject matter of psychology.

Case study: A research procedure by which current, historical, and biographical information is collected for a single individual.

Control group: An essential part of any experiment, this group of subjects does not experience the researcher’s manipulation and thus constitutes a standard against which the treatment effects can be compared.

Correlation coefficient: A statistic or numerical value indicating the degree of relationship between two sets of data (for example, height and weight).  Correlational method: A research procedure for finding the relationship between variables; causality cannot be inferred in studies using this method.

Dependent variable: In an experiment, the behavior that is expected to vary with (or depend upon) the independent variable.

Experimental hypothesis: A testable statement of the relationship between two or more variables.

Experimental method: This is the most effective research technique because it allows causal relationships to be determined; this method includes at least one control group and random assignment.

External validity: The extent to which experimental findings can be generalized to other populations, settings, treatments, and so forth.

Functionalism: An early school of psychology that focused on the adaptive functions behavior and consciousness.

Gestalt psychology: An early school of psychology that emphasized the patterns, organization, and wholeness of human experience. Independent variable: In an experiment, the factor that is controlled by the experimenter and is expected to influence the subject’s behavior.

Internal validity: Quality attributed to experiments that have been designed and conducted so that competing explanations of their findings are implausible.

Introspection: A procedure used by early psychologists to try to describe the contents of the mind; accordingly, trained observers reported the experiences produced by various stimuli.

Psychoanalysis: A therapeutic method developed by Freud for treating mental patients. Freud’s theory of personality, which stresses the importance of unconscious motives, was based on his experiences with the psychoanalytic method.

Psychology: The scientific study of behavior and related mental and physical processes.

Random assignment: The procedure used in experiments to make sure that each subject has an equal chance of being assigned to any of the groups.

Science: Systematized knowledge that is secured by means of observation, experimentation, and theory construction.

Statistical significance: Research results that have a low probability of occurring simply because of chance.

Structuralism: An early school of psychology that emphasized introspection to reveal the basic elements of consciousness and the structure of the mind.

Treatment group: In an experiment, the group of subjects that is exposed to the researcher’s manipulation (as opposed to the control group which is not).

The tonsils and adenoids are areas in which biochemical defenses called antibodies are produced to fight infection. The tonsils are a matched pair at the sides of the throat, the adenoids a single mass high at the back. Paradoxically, both may become infected and cause infection elsewhere, particularly in childhood, when tonsils and adenoids are at their largest.

As people grow older, they generally have fewer colds. The graph at left documents the drop-off in the incidence of respiratory disease over the average lifetime, as traced in a six-year study of 4,905 males and females in Tecumseh, Michigan. The researchers’ figures lump together all respiratory illness, including influenza, bronchitis and pneumonia, as well as colds, but colds were by far the most frequent complaint.

The decline in the number of colds is not steady; a dramatic reduction in an individual’s susceptibility to respiratory ailments occurs during the first 20 years of life. An average infant has a sniffly existence, suffering 6.1 colds and other respiratory infections before the age of one. By the late teens, a person will encounter only 2.5 such illnesses yearly; presumably, resistance has been stiffened by the colds endured at a younger age.
From young adulthood on, the decline in the number of annual colds continues more slowly. Respiratory ailments make a brief comeback among people in their twenties. During those childrearing years, a couple’s children are likely to pass some of their numerous colds on to the parents.

Gender makes a surprising difference. Mothers usually have closer contact with their children than fathers do, and this fact may help explain why women in their twenties and thirties experience so many more respiratory diseases than men of the same age, But elderly women and young girls are also stricken more often than males of the same ages; the only exception to this rule is boys aged three or younger. The male-female discrepancy is one of the mysteries of the common cold that continue to puzzle medical researchers.